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Amount (mg / 100g)
Kakadu plum
1000–5300
Camu camu
2800
Acerola
1677
Indian gooseberry
445
Rose hip
426
Common sea-buckthorn
400
Guava
228
Blackcurrant
200
Yellow bell pepper/capsicum
183
Red bell pepper/capsicum
128
Kale
120
Broccoli
90
Kiwifruit
90
Raw plant source
Amount (
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Vitamin_C_4_1.txt
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of the Aurignacian south of the Ebro River has been dated to roughly 37,500 years ago, which has prompted the "Ebro Frontier" hypothesis which states that the river presented a geographic barrier preventing modern human immigration, and thus prolonging Neanderthal persistence. However, the dating of the Iberian Transition is debated, with a contested timing of 43,000–40,800 years ago at Cueva Bajondillo, Spain. The Châtelperronian appears in northeastern Iberia about 42,500–41,600 years ago.
Some Neanderth
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_7_2.txt
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60 mg, but as of May 27, 2016, it was revised to 90 mg to bring it into agreement with the RDA. A table of the old and new adult daily values is provided at Reference Daily Intake.
European Union regulations require that labels declare energy, protein, fat, saturated fat, carbohydrates, sugars, and salt. Voluntary nutrients may be shown if present in significant amounts. Instead of Daily Values, amounts are shown as percent of Reference Intakes (RIs). For vitamin C, 100% RI was set at 80 mg in 2011.
Although also present
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Vitamin_C_0_13.txt
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had to have eaten a varied enough diet to prevent nutrient deficiencies and protein poisoning, especially in the winter when they presumably ate mostly lean meat. Any food with high contents of other essential nutrients not provided by lean meat would have been vital components of their diet, such as fat-rich brains, carbohydrate-rich and abundant underground storage organs (including roots and tubers), or, like modern Inuit, the stomach contents of herbivorous prey items.
For meat, they appear to have fed predominantly on hoofed mammals, namely red deer and reindeer as these two were the most abundant
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_5_22.txt
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identified in a Neanderthal from Monti Lessini, Italy, and possibly Cueva del Sidrón, Spain. However, as in modern humans, red was probably not a very common hair colour because the variant is not present in many other sequenced Neanderthals.
Maximum natural lifespan and the timing of adulthood, menopause and gestation were most likely very similar to modern humans. However, it has been hypothesised, based on the growth rates of teeth and tooth enamel, that Neanderthals matured faster than modern humans, although this is not backed up by age biomarkers.
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_0_63.txt
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Culture[edit]
Main article: Neanderthal behavior
Social structure[edit]
Group dynamics[edit]
Skeleton of a Neanderthal child discovered in Roc de Marsal near Les Eyzies, France, on display at the Hall of Human Origins, Washington, D.C.
Neanderthals likely lived in more sparsely distributed groups than contemporary modern humans, but group size is thought to have averaged 10 to 30 individuals, similar to modern hunter-gatherers. Reliable evidence of Neanderthal group composition comes from Cueva del Sidrón, Spain
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to vitamin C. Yeasts do not make l-ascorbic acid but rather its stereoisomer, erythorbic acid. In plants, synthesis is accomplished through the conversion of mannose or galactose to ascorbic acid. In animals, the starting material is glucose. In some species that synthesize ascorbate in the liver (including mammals and perching birds), the glucose is extracted from glycogen; ascorbate synthesis is a glycogenolysis-dependent process. In humans and in animals that cannot synthesize vitamin C, the enzyme
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Vitamin_C_0_29.txt
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orders, Haplorhini. This group includes humans. The other more primitive primates (Strepsirrhini) have the ability to make vitamin C. Synthesis does not occur in some species in the rodent family Caviidae, which includes guinea pigs and capybaras, but does occur in other rodents, including rats and mice.
Synthesis does not occur in most bat species, but there are at least two species, frugivorous bat Rousettus leschenaultii and insectivorous bat Hipposideros armiger, that retain
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Vitamin_C_0_34.txt
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and northern Spain is a distinct industry from the Mousterian, and is controversially hypothesised to represent a culture of Neanderthals borrowing (or by process of acculturation) tool-making techniques from immigrating modern humans, crafting bone tools and ornaments. In this frame, the makers would have been a transitional culture between the Neanderthal Mousterian and the modern human Aurignacian. The opposing viewpoint is that the Châtelperronian was manufactured by modern humans instead. Abrupt transitions similar to the Mousterian/Châtelperronian could
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_0_131.txt
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indicate that Neanderthal dental features had evolved by around 450–430,000 years ago during the Middle Pleistocene.
There are two main hypotheses regarding the evolution of Neanderthals following the Neanderthal/human split: two-phase and accretion. Two-phase argues that a single major environmental event—such as the Saale glaciation—caused European H. heidelbergensis to increase rapidly in body size and robustness, as well as undergoing a lengthening of the head (phase 1), which then led to other changes in skull anatomy (phase 2). However, Neander
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_2_3.txt
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,000-year-old Neanderthal bone from the same cave than that of Neanderthals from Vindija Cave, Croatia, or Mezmaiskaya Cave in the Caucasus, suggesting that interbreeding was local.
For the 90,000-year-old Denisova 11, it was found that her father was a Denisovan related to more recent inhabitants of the region, and her mother a Neanderthal related to more recent European Neanderthals at Vindija Cave, Croatia. Given how few Denisovan bones are known, the discovery of a first-generation hybrid indicates interbreeding
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_0_178.txt
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als also exploited marine resources on the Iberian, Italian and Peloponnesian Peninsulas, where they waded or dived for shellfish, as early as 150,000 years ago at Cueva Bajondillo, Spain, similar to the fishing record of modern humans. At Vanguard Cave, Gibraltar, the inhabitants consumed Mediterranean monk seal, short-beaked common dolphin, common bottlenose dolphin, Atlantic bluefin tuna, sea bream and purple sea urchin; and at Gruta da Figueira Brava, Portugal, there is evidence of large-
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_0_97.txt
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5 ft 5 in to 5 ft 6 in) for males and 152 to 156 cm (5 ft 0 in to 5 ft 1 in) for females. For comparison, the average height of 20 males and 10 females Upper Palaeolithic humans is, respectively, 176.2 cm (5 ft 9.4 in) and 162.9 cm (5 ft 4.1 in), although this decreases by 10 cm (4 in) nearer the end of the period based on 21 males and 15 females; and the
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_4_1.txt
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Medical uses[edit]
Vitamin C supplements among other dietary supplements at a US drug store
Vitamin C has a definitive role in treating scurvy, which is a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency. Beyond that, a role for vitamin C as prevention or treatment for various diseases is disputed, with reviews often reporting conflicting results. No effect of vitamin C supplementation reported for overall mortality. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines and on the World Health Organization's Model Forumulary. In 2021, it was the 255th most commonly prescribed medication in
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Vitamin_C_8_0.txt
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driven solely by animal instinct. "Neanderthal" can also be used as an insult.
In literature, they are sometimes depicted as brutish or monstrous, such as in H. G. Wells' The Grisly Folk and Elizabeth Marshall Thomas' The Animal Wife, but sometimes with a civilised but unfamiliar culture, as in William Golding's The Inheritors, Björn Kurtén's Dance of the Tiger, and Jean M. Auel's Clan of the Cave Bear and her Earth's Children series.
Template:Authority control
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_0_192.txt
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millions of years ago.
Although nDNA confirms that Neanderthals and Denisovans are more closely related to each other than they are to modern humans, Neanderthals and modern humans share a more recent maternally-transmitted mtDNA common ancestor, possibly due to interbreeding between Denisovans and some unknown human species. The 400,000-year-old Neanderthal-like humans from Sima de los Huesos in northern Spain, looking at mtDNA, are more closely related to Denisovans than Neanderthals. Several Neanderthal-like fossils in Eurasia
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_6_11.txt
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ic".
^ The bones were discovered by workers of Wilhelm Beckershoff and Friedrich Wilhelm Pieper. Initially, the workers threw the bones out as debris, but Beckershoff then told them to store the bones. Pieper asked Fuhlrott to come up to the cave and investigate the bones, which Beckershoff and Pieper believed belonged to a cave bear.
^ OAS1 and STAT2 both are associated with fighting viral inflections (interferons), and the listed toll-like receptors (TLRs) allow cells to identify bacterial, fungal,
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(along with minerals and other vitamins). Supplemental rations of these highly fortified, blended foods are provided to refugees and displaced persons in camps and to beneficiaries of development feeding programs that are targeted largely toward mothers and children. The report adds: "The stability of vitamin C (L-ascorbic acid) is of concern because this is one of the most labile vitamins in foods. Its main loss during processing and storage is from oxidation, which is accelerated by light, oxygen, heat, increased pH, high moisture content (water activity), and the presence of copper or ferrous salts. To reduce
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Vitamin_C_4_8.txt
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Neanderthals were capable of syntactical language, although nonetheless incapable of mastering any human dialect.
It is debated if behavioural modernity is a recent and uniquely modern human innovation, or if Neanderthals also possessed it.
Religion[edit]
See also: Paleolithic religion and History of religion
Funerals[edit]
Reconstruction of the grave of La Chapelle-aux-Saints 1 at the Musée de La Chapelle-aux-Saints
Although Neanderthals did bury their dead, at least occasionally—which may explain the
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_5_88.txt
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in science fiction works, such as the 1911 The Quest for Fire by J.-H. Rosny aîné and the 1927 The Grisly Folk by H. G. Wells in which they are depicted as monsters. In 1911, Scottish anthropologist Arthur Keith reconstructed La Chapelle-aux-Saints 1 as an immediate precursor to modern humans, sitting next to a fire, producing tools, wearing a necklace, and having a more humanlike posture, but this failed to garner much scientific rapport, and Keith later abandoned his thesis in 1915.
By the middle of the century, based
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clavicle, an abnormal gait, vision problems in the left eye, and possible hearing loss (perhaps swimmer's ear). In 1995, Trinkaus estimated that about 80% succumbed to their injuries and died before reaching 40, and thus theorised that Neanderthals employed a risky hunting strategy ("rodeo rider" hypothesis). However, rates of cranial trauma are not significantly different between Neanderthals and Middle Palaeolithic modern humans (although Neanderthals seem to have had a higher mortality risk), there are few specimens of both Upper Palaeolithic modern humans and Neanderth
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associated proliferation of Artemisia-dominated desert-steppes.
Dispersal of deposits during the Campanian Ignimbrite Eruption around 40,000 years ago.
It has also been proposed that climate change was the primary driver, as their low population left them vulnerable to any environmental change, with even a small drop in survival or fertility rates possibly quickly leading to their extinction. However, Neanderthals and their ancestors had survived through several glacial periods over their hundreds of thousands of years of European habitation. It is also proposed that around 40,000 years ago, when Neander
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AD, reduced the population by 50%, with the Black Death killing 75–200 million people in Eurasia and North Africa alone. Human population is believed to have reached one billion in 1800. It has since then increased exponentially, reaching two billion in 1930 and three billion in 1960, four in 1975, five in 1987 and six billion in 1999. It passed seven billion in 2011 and passed eight billion in November 2022. It took over two million years of human prehistory and history for the human population to reach one billion and only 207 years more to grow to 7 billion. The combined biomass of the carbon
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Human_4_7.txt
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night to enhance ambush tactics), and had large eyes and visual processing neural centres. Genetically, colour blindness (which may enhance mesopic vision) is typically correlated with northern-latitude populations, and the Neanderthals from Vindija Cave, Croatia, had some substitutions in the Opsin genes which could have influenced colour vision. However, the functional implications of these substitutions are inconclusive. Neanderthal-derived alleles near ASB1 and EXOC6 are associated with being an evening person, narcolepsy and day-time napping.
Neanderthals suffered
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see Unitary pseudogenes) and the cofactor FAD+. This reaction produces 2-oxogulonolactone (2-keto-gulonolactone), which spontaneously undergoes enolization to form ascorbic acid. Reptiles and older orders of birds make ascorbic acid in their kidneys. Recent orders of birds and most mammals make ascorbic acid in their liver.
Some mammals have lost the ability to synthesize vitamin C, including simians and tarsiers, which together make up one of two major primate sub
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Vitamin_C_0_33.txt
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, and sugar. It is also "rich in potassium, magnesium, and calcium, as well as protein".
The Mediterranean diet, which includes limiting consumption of red meat and using olive oil in cooking, has also been shown to improve cardiovascular outcomes.
Obesity
Further information: Dieting
Healthy diets in combination with physical exercise can be used by people who are overweight or obese to lose weight, although this approach is not by itself an effective long-term treatment for obesity and is primarily effective for only a short period (up to one year), after which some of the weight is
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Healthy_diet_2_2.txt
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goats, sheep and cattle reported ranges of 100–110, 265–270 and 160–350 μmol/L, respectively.
The biosynthesis of ascorbic acid in vertebrates starts with the formation of UDP-glucuronic acid. UDP-glucuronic acid is formed when UDP-glucose undergoes two oxidations catalyzed by the enzyme UDP-glucose 6-dehydrogenase. UDP-glucose 6-dehydrogenase uses the co-factor NAD as the electron acceptor. The transferase UDP-gluc
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Vitamin_C_7_2.txt
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ago. However, a 2020 analysis of H. antecessor enamel proteomes suggests that H. antecessor is related but not a direct ancestor. DNA studies have yielded various results for the Neanderthal/human divergence time, such as 538–315, 553–321, 565–503, 654–475, 690–550, 765–550, 741–317, and 800–520,000 years ago; and a dental analysis concluded before 800,000 years ago.
Neanderthals and Denisovans are more closely related to each
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_0_31.txt
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.
Fresh fruit was expensive to keep on board, whereas boiling it down to juice allowed easy storage but destroyed the vitamin (especially if boiled in copper kettles). It was 1796 before the British navy adopted lemon juice as standard issue at sea. In 1845, ships in the West Indies were provided with lime juice instead, and in 1860 lime juice was used throughout the Royal Navy, giving rise to the American use of the nickname "limey" for the British. Captain James Cook had previously demonstrated the advantages of carrying "Sour krout" on board, by taking his crew
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Vitamin_C_10_4.txt
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. Southern Neanderthals exhibit regional anatomical differences from northern counterparts: a less protrusive jaw, a shorter gap behind the molars, and a vertically higher jawbone. These all instead suggest Neanderthal communities regularly interacted with neighbouring communities within a region, but not as often beyond.
Nonetheless, over long periods of time, there is evidence of large-scale cross-continental migration. Early specimens from Mezmaiskaya Cave in the Caucasus and Denisova Cave in the Siberian Altai Mountains differ genetically from those found in Western Europe, whereas later specimens from these caves both have genetic profiles more similar
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_0_85.txt
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8 to 184.8 cm based on footprint length and from 65.8 to 189.3 cm based on footprint width). For Neanderthal weight, samples of 26 specimens found an average of 77.6 kg (171 lb) for males and 66.4 kg (146 lb) for females. Using 76 kg (168 lb), the body mass index for Neanderthal males was calculated to be 26.9–28.2, which in modern humans correlates to being overweight. This indicates a very robust build. The Neanderthal LEPR gene concerned with storing
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_0_45.txt
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zzian industry, and the Balkan Szeletian industry.
Before immigration, the only evidence of Neanderthal bone tools are animal rib lissoirs—which are rubbed against hide to make it more supple or waterproof—although this could also be evidence for modern humans immigrating earlier than expected. In 2013, two 51,400- to 41,100-year-old deer rib lissoirs were reported from Pech-de-l'Azé and the nearby Abri Peyrony in France. In 2020, five more lissoirs made
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been described as the "no man's land" between definitive scientific knowledge and dogmatic religious teachings. Philosophy relies on reason and evidence, unlike religion, but does not require the empirical observations and experiments provided by science. Major fields of philosophy include metaphysics, epistemology, logic, and axiology (which includes ethics and aesthetics).
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Human_7_16.txt
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average in the year 1900 was 163 cm (5 ft 4 in) and 152.7 cm (5 ft 0 in), respectively. The fossil record shows that adult Neanderthals varied from about 147.5 to 177 cm (4 ft 10 in to 5 ft 10 in) in height, although some may have grown much taller (73.8 to 184.8 cm based on footprint length and from 65.8 to 189.3 cm based on footprint width). For Neanderthal weight, samples of 26 specimens found an average of
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_4_2.txt
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thals had to wade or dive into shallow waters to collect them. At Grotta di Santa Lucia, Italy, in the Campanian volcanic arc, Neanderthals collected the porous volcanic pumice, which, for contemporary humans, was probably used for polishing points and needles. The pumices are associated with shell tools.
At Abri du Maras, France, twisted fibres and a 3-ply inner-bark-fibre cord fragment associated with Neanderthals show that they produced string and cordage, but it is unclear how widespread this technology was because
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_5_65.txt
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States National Academy of Sciences
100 mg/day: Japan National Institute of Health and Nutrition
110 mg/day (males) and 95 mg/day (females): European Food Safety Authority
US vitamin C recommendations (mg per day)
RDA (children ages 1–3 years)
15
RDA (children ages 4–8 years)
25
RDA (children ages 9–13 years)
45
RDA (girls ages 14–18 years)
65
RDA (boys
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Vitamin_C_3_1.txt
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Hamburg and $3,490 in the US.
Vitamin C has a definitive role in treating scurvy, which is a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency. Beyond that, a role for vitamin C as prevention or treatment for various diseases is disputed, with reviews often reporting conflicting results. No effect of vitamin C supplementation reported for overall mortality. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines and on the World Health Organization's Model Forumulary. In 2021, it was the 255th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 1
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Vitamin_C_0_47.txt
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activities, such as for knapping, butchering, hearths and wood storage. Many Neanderthal sites lack evidence for such activity perhaps due to natural degradation of the area over tens of thousands of years, such as by bear infiltration after abandonment of the settlement.
In a number of caves, evidence of hearths has been detected. Neanderthals likely considered air circulation when making hearths as a lack of proper ventilation for a single hearth can render a cave uninhabitable in several minutes. Abric Romaní rock shelter, Spain, indicates eight evenly spaced hearths lined up against the rock
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_0_140.txt
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Public health
Most of the people unable to afford a healthy diet in 2021 lived in southern Asia, and in eastern and western Africa
Consumers are generally aware of the elements of a healthy diet, but find nutrition labels and diet advice in popular media confusing.
Vending machines are criticized for being avenues of entry into schools for junk food promoters, but there is little in the way of regulation and it is difficult for most people to properly analyze the real merits of a company referring to itself as "healthy." The Committee of Advertising Practice in the United Kingdom launched a proposal to limit media advertising for food
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Healthy_diet_5_0.txt
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Recommendations
World Health Organization
The World Health Organization (WHO) makes the following five recommendations with respect to both populations and individuals:
Maintain a healthy weight by eating roughly the same number of calories that your body is using.
Limit intake of fats to no more than 30% of total caloric intake, preferring unsaturated fats to saturated fats. Avoid trans fats.
Eat at least 400 grams of fruits and vegetables per day (not counting potatoes, sweet potatoes, cassava, and other starchy roots). A healthy diet also contains legumes (e.g. lentils, beans
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Healthy_diet_1_0.txt
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Etymology and definition
Further information: Names for the human species and Human taxonomy
Carl Linnaeus coined the name Homo sapiens and is the type specimen of the species
All modern humans are classified into the species Homo sapiens, coined by Carl Linnaeus in his 1735 work Systema Naturae. The generic name "Homo" is a learned 18th-century derivation from Latin homō, which refers to humans of either sex. The word human can refer to all members of the Homo genus, although in common usage it generally just refers to Homo sap
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acid is a weak sugar acid structurally related to glucose. In biological systems, ascorbic acid can be found only at low pH, but in solutions above pH 5 is predominantly found in the ionized form, ascorbate.
Numerous analytical methods have been developed for ascorbic acid detection. For example, vitamin C content of a food sample such as fruit juice can be calculated by measuring the volume of the sample required to decolorize a solution of dichlorophenolindophenol (DCPIP) and then calibrating the results by comparison with a known
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), whole grains, and nuts.
Limit the intake of simple sugars to less than 10% of caloric intake (below 5% of calories or 25 grams may be even better).
Limit salt/sodium from all sources and ensure that salt is iodized. Less than 5 grams of salt per day can reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease.
The WHO has stated that insufficient vegetables and fruit is the cause of 2.8% of deaths worldwide.
Other WHO recommendations include:
ensuring that the foods chosen have sufficient vitamins and certain minerals;
avoiding directly poisonous (e.g
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Healthy_diet_1_1.txt
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pieces of the ribs. Following Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species, Fuhlrott and Schaaffhausen argued the bones represented an ancient modern human form; Schaaffhausen, a social Darwinist, believed that humans linearly progressed from savage to civilised, and so concluded that Neanderthals were barbarous cave-dwellers. Fuhlrott and Schaaffhausen met opposition namely from the prolific pathologist Rudolf Virchow who argued against defining new species based on only a single find. In 1872, Virchow erroneously interpreted Neander
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_1_6.txt
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be non-coding ("junk") DNA with few biological functions.
Due to the absence of Neanderthal-derived mtDNA (which is passed on from mother to child) in modern populations, it has been suggested that the progeny of Neanderthal females who mated with modern human males were either rare, absent, or sterile—that is to say, admixture stems from the progeny of Neanderthal males with modern human females. Due to the lack of Neanderthal-derived Y-chromosomes in modern humans (which is passed on from father to son), it has also
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–17. For pregnancy 100 mg/day; for lactation 155 mg/day.
Cigarette smokers and people exposed to secondhand smoke have lower serum vitamin C levels than nonsmokers. The thinking is that inhalation of smoke causes oxidative damage, depleting this antioxidant vitamin. The US Institute of Medicine estimated that smokers need 35 mg more vitamin C per day than nonsmokers, but did not formally establish a higher RDA for smokers. An inverse relationship between vitamin C intake and lung cancer was observed, although the conculsion was that more research is needed to confirm
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C leads to a supraphysiological level of vitamin C followed by oxidative degradation to dehydroascorbic acid and hence to oxalate, increasing the risk of oxalate kidney stones and oxalate nephropathy. The risk may be higher in people with renal impairment, as kidneys efficiently excrete excess vitamin C. Second, treatment with high dose vitamin C should be avoided in patients with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency as it can lead to acute hemolysis. Third, treatment might interfere with the accuracy of glucometer measurement of blood glucose
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Vitamin_C_0_64.txt
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Mediterranean diet as the baseline via nutrition science. For instance, via:
(additional) increase in plant-based foods alongside additional restriction of meat intake – meat reduction is (or can be) typically healthy,
keeping alcohol consumption of any type at a minimum – conventional Mediterranean diets include alcohol consumption (i.e. of wine), which is under research due to data suggesting negative long-term brain impacts even at low/moderate consumption levels.
fully replacing refined grains – some guidelines of Mediterranean diets do not clarify or include the principle of whole-grain consumption instead of refined grains. Whole grains
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has led to the suggestion that, in higher primates, uric acid has taken over some of the functions of ascorbate.
Plant synthesis[edit]
Vitamin C biosynthesis in plants
There are many different biosynthesis pathways to ascorbic acid in plants. Most proceed through products of glycolysis and other metabolic pathways. For example, one pathway utilizes plant cell wall polymers. The principal plant ascorbic acid biosynthesis pathway seems to be via l-galactose. The enzyme l-galactose dehydrogenase catalyzes the overall
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Vitamin_C_7_13.txt
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like hyoid and ear bones, which could suggest the early evolution of the modern human vocal apparatus. However, the hyoid does not definitively provide insight into vocal tract anatomy. Subsequent studies reconstruct the Neanderthal vocal apparatus as comparable to that of modern humans, with a similar vocal repertoire. In 2015, Lieberman hypothesized that Neanderthals were capable of syntactical language, although nonetheless incapable of mastering any human dialect.
It is debated if behavioural modernity is a recent and uniquely modern human innovation, or if Neanderthals also possessed it.
Although Neanderthals did bury their dead,
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_0_157.txt
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Evolution[edit]
Stage 1: early-pre-Neanderthal, possibly H. erectus (Tautavel Man, 450,000 years ago)Stage 2: archaic Neanderthal, possibly H. heidelbergensis (Miguelón, 430,000 years ago)Stage 3: early Neanderthal (Saccopastore I, 130,000 years ago)Stage 4: classic European Neanderthal (La Chapelle-aux-Saints 1, 50,000 years ago)The accretion model
It is largely thought that H. heidelberg
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history, human populations have universally become taller, probably as a consequence of better nutrition, healthcare, and living conditions. The average mass of an adult human is 59 kg (130 lb) for females and 77 kg (170 lb) for males. Like many other conditions, body weight and body type are influenced by both genetic susceptibility and environment and varies greatly among individuals.
Humans have a far faster and more accurate throw than other animals. Humans are also among the best long-distance runners in the animal kingdom, but slower over short distances. Humans' thinner body hair and more
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to Western European Neanderthal specimens than to the earlier specimens from the same locations, suggesting long-range migration and population replacement over time. Similarly, artefacts and DNA from Chagyrskaya and Okladnikov Caves, also in the Altai Mountains, resemble those of eastern European Neanderthal sites about 3,000–4,000 km (1,900–2,500 mi) away more than they do artefacts and DNA of the older Neanderthals from Denisova Cave, suggesting two distinct migration events into Siberia. Neanderthals seem to have suffered a major population decline
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, only one in twenty Africans is 60 years of age or older. In 2012, the United Nations estimated that there were 316,600 living centenarians (humans of age 100 or older) worldwide.
Human life stages
Infant boy and girl
Boy and girl before puberty (children)
Adolescent male and female
Adult man and woman
Elderly man and woman
Diet
Main article: Human nutrition
Humans living in Bali, Indonesia, preparing a meal
Humans
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the evolution of the ability to digest lactose in some adults. The types of food consumed, and how they are prepared, have varied widely by time, location, and culture.
In general, humans can survive for up to eight weeks without food, depending on stored body fat. Survival without water is usually limited to three or four days, with a maximum of one week. In 2020 it is estimated 9 million humans die every year from causes directly or indirectly related to starvation. Childhood malnutrition is also common and contributes to the global burden of disease. However, global food distribution is not even, and
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,000; 5,000 to 9,000 remaining constant; or 3,000 to 25,000 steadily increasing until 52,000 years ago before declining until extinction. Archaeological evidence suggests that there was a tenfold increase in the modern human population in Western Europe during the period of the Neanderthal/modern human transition, and Neanderthals may have been at a demographic disadvantage due to a lower fertility rate, a higher infant mortality rate, or a combination of the two. Estimates giving a total population in the higher tens of thousands are contested. A consistently low population may be explained in the context
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(43,300 ±929 – 40,900 ±719 years ago), Levallois Mousterian (40,200 ±1,500 – 38,400 ±1,300 years ago) and Châtelperronian (40,930 ±393 – 33,670 ±450 years ago).
There is some debate if Neanderthals had long-ranged weapons. A wound on the neck of an African wild ass from Umm el Tlel, Syria, was likely inflicted by a heavy Lev
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. Carnitine is essential for the transport of fatty acids into mitochondria for ATP generation.
Hypoxia-inducible factor-proline dioxygenase enzymes (isoforms: EGLN1, EGLN2, and EGLN3) allows cells to respond physiologically to low concentrations of oxygen.
Dopamine beta-hydroxylase participates in the biosynthesis of norepinephrine from dopamine.
Peptidylglycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase amidates peptide hormones by removing the glyoxyl
|
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C-free diet, whereas in the earlier British study, six to eight months were required, possibly due to the pre-loading of this group with a 70 mg/day supplement for six weeks before the scorbutic diet was fed. Men in both studies had blood levels of ascorbic acid too low to be accurately measured by the time they developed signs of scurvy. These studies both reported that all obvious symptoms of scurvy could be completely reversed by supplementation of only 10 mg a day. Treatment of scurvy can be with vitamin C-containing foods or
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, like Antarctica and vast swathes of the ocean. Most humans (61%) live in Asia; the remainder live in the Americas (14%), Africa (14%), Europe (11%), and Oceania (0.5%).
Within the last century, humans have explored challenging environments such as Antarctica, the deep sea, and outer space. Human habitation within these hostile environments is restrictive and expensive, typically limited in duration, and restricted to scientific, military, or industrial expeditions. Humans have briefly visited the Moon and made their presence felt on other celestial bodies through human-made robotic spacecraft.
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,000 years ago, which could indicate an increased dependence on cooking or the advent of boiling, a technique that would have softened food.
At Cueva del Sidrón, Spain, Neanderthals likely cooked and possibly smoked food, as well as used certain plants—such as yarrow and camomile—as flavouring, although these plants may have instead been used for their medicinal properties. At Gorham's Cave, Gibraltar, Neanderthals may have been roasting pinecones to access pine nuts.
At Grotte du Lazaret, France, a total of twenty
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000 km (5,000 sq mi), with each band claiming 1,200–2,800 km (460–1,080 sq mi), maintaining strong alliances for mating networks or to cope with leaner times and enemies. Similarly, British anthropologist Eiluned Pearce and Cypriot archaeologist Theodora Moutsiou speculated that Neanderthals were possibly capable of forming geographically expansive ethnolinguistic tribes encompassing upwards of 800 people, based on the transport of obsidian up to 300 km (190 mi) from the source compared to
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unlikely these bands interacted very often, and mapping of the Neanderthal brain and their small group size and population density could indicate that they had a reduced ability for inter-group interaction and trade. However, a few Neanderthal artefacts in a settlement could have originated 20, 30, 100 and 300 km (12.5, 18.5, 60 and 185 mi) away. Based on this, Hayden also speculated that macro-bands formed which functioned much like those of the low-density hunter-gatherer societies of the Western Desert of Australia. Macro-bands collectively encompass 13,
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the materials used to make them (such as animal hair, hide, sinew, or plant fibres) are biodegradable and preserve very poorly. This technology could indicate at least a basic knowledge of weaving and knotting, which would have made possible the production of nets, containers, packaging, baskets, carrying devices, ties, straps, harnesses, clothes, shoes, beds, bedding, mats, flooring, roofing, walls and snares, and would have been important in hafting, fishing and seafaring. Dating to 52–41,000 years ago
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ages made from animal skin. By and large, they appear to have avoided severe infections, indicating good long-term treatment of such wounds.
Their knowledge of medicinal plants was comparable to that of contemporary humans. An individual at Cueva del Sidrón, Spain, seems to have been medicating a dental abscess using poplar—which contains salicylic acid, the active ingredient in aspirin—and there were also traces of the antibiotic-producing Penicillium chrysogenum. They may also have used yarrow and camomile, and their bitter taste—which should act
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fat which could have been gathered in general from typical prey items (namely mammoths) could also indicate food storage capability. With shellfish, Neanderthals needed to eat, cook, or in some manner preserve them soon after collection, as shellfish spoils very quickly. At Cueva de los Aviones, Spain, the remains of edible, algae eating shellfish associated with the alga Jania rubens could indicate that, like some modern hunter gatherer societies, harvested shellfish were held in water-soaked algae to keep them alive and fresh until consumption.
Comp
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on a 1772-75 Pacific Ocean voyage without losing any of his men to scurvy. For his report on his methods the British Royal Society awarded him the Copley Medal in 1776.
The name antiscorbutic was used in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries for foods known to prevent scurvy. These foods included lemons, limes, oranges, sauerkraut, cabbage, malt, and portable soup. In 1928, the Canadian Arctic anthropologist Vilhjalmur Stefansson showed that the Inuit avoided scurvy on a diet of largely
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5/wk
Seafood
8/wk
–
15/wk
Eggs
3/wk
3/wk
3/wk
Nuts/seeds
4/wk
7/wk
4/wk
Processed Soy (including tofu)
0.5/wk
8/wk
0.5/wk
Oils (grams)
27
27
27
Solid fats limit (grams)
18
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rather than broad daylight because they lived in regions with reduced daytime hours in the winter, hunted large game (such predators typically hunt at night to enhance ambush tactics), and had large eyes and visual processing neural centres. Genetically, colour blindness (which may enhance mesopic vision) is typically correlated with northern-latitude populations, and the Neanderthals from Vindija Cave, Croatia, had some substitutions in the Opsin genes which could have influenced colour vision. However, the functional implications of these substitutions are inconclusive. Neanderthal-derived alleles near ASB1 and EXOC
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Society
Main article: Society
Humans often live in family-based social structures
Society is the system of organizations and institutions arising from interaction between humans. Humans are highly social and tend to live in large complex social groups. They can be divided into different groups according to their income, wealth, power, reputation and other factors. The structure of social stratification and the degree of social mobility differs, especially between modern and traditional societies. Human groups range from the size of families to nations. The first form of human social organization is thought to have resembled hunter-gatherer band societies
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specifically noted the cinereous vulture, red-billed chough, kestrel, lesser kestrel, alpine chough, rook, jackdaw and the white tailed eagle in Middle Palaeolithic sites. Other birds claimed to present evidence of modifications by Neanderthals are the golden eagle, rock pigeon, common raven and the bearded vulture. The earliest claim of bird bone jewellery is a number of 130,000-year-old white tailed eagle talons found in a cache near Krapina, Croatia, speculated, in 2015, to have
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Neanderthals (/niˈændərˌtɑːl, neɪ-, -ˌθɑːl/ nee-AN-də(r)-TAHL, nay-, -THAHL; Homo neanderthalensis or H. sapiens neanderthalensis) are an extinct group of archaic humans (generally regarded as a distinct species, though some regard it as a subspecies of Homo sapiens) who lived in Eurasia until about 40,000 years ago.
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fat and body heat production is similar to that of the woolly mammoth, and so was likely an adaptation for cold climate.
The neck vertebrae of Neanderthals are thicker from the front to the rear and transversely than those of (most) modern humans, leading to stability, possibly to accommodate a different head shape and size. Although the Neanderthal thorax (where the ribcage is) was similar in size to modern humans, the longer and straighter ribs would have equated to a widened mid-lower thorax and stronger breathing in the lower thorax, which are
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population decline during MIS 4 (71–57,000 years ago), and the distribution of the Micoquian tradition could indicate that Central Europe and the Caucasus were repopulated by communities from a refuge zone either in eastern France or Hungary (the fringes of the Micoquian tradition) who dispersed along the rivers Prut and Dniester.
There is also evidence of inter-group conflict: a skeleton from La Roche à Pierrot, France, showing a healed fracture on top of the skull apparently caused by a deep blade wound, and another from Shanidar Cave,
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uronate pyrophosphorylase removes a UMP and glucuronokinase, with the cofactor ADP, removes the final phosphate leading to d-glucuronic acid. The aldehyde group of this compound is reduced to a primary alcohol using the enzyme glucuronate reductase and the cofactor NADPH, yielding l-gulonic acid. This is followed by lactone formation—utilizing the hydrolase gluconolactonase—between the carbonyl on C1 and hydroxyl group on C4. l-Gul
|
xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Vitamin_C_7_3.txt
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A healthy diet is a diet that maintains or improves overall health. A healthy diet provides the body with essential nutrition: fluid, macronutrients such as protein, micronutrients such as vitamins, and adequate fibre and food energy.
A healthy diet may contain fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, and may include little to no ultra-processed foods or sweetened beverages. The requirements for a healthy diet can be met from a variety of plant-based and animal-based foods, although additional sources of vitamin B12 are needed for those following a vegan diet. Various nutrition
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us Diedrich argued that it was not a flute at all, and the holes were made by a scavenging hyaena as there is a lack of cut marks stemming from whittling, but in 2018, Slovenian archaeologist Matija Turk and colleagues countered that it is highly unlikely the punctures were made by teeth, and cut marks are not always present on bone flutes.
Technology[edit]
Despite the apparent 150,000-year stagnation in Neanderthal lithic innovation, there is evidence that Neanderthal technology was more sophisticated than was previously thought. However, the high
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been suggested that the hybrids that contributed ancestry to modern populations were predominantly females, or the Neanderthal Y-chromosome was not compatible with H. sapiens and became extinct.
According to linkage disequilibrium mapping, the last Neanderthal gene flow into the modern human genome occurred 86–37,000 years ago, but most likely 65–47,000 years ago. It is thought that Neanderthal genes which contributed to the present day human genome stemmed from interbreeding in the Near East rather than the entirety of Europe. However, interbreeding still occurred without contributing to the modern genome. The
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Neanderthals and contemporary modern humans. Further, such stunting may have also resulted from harsh winters and bouts of low food resources.
Sites showing evidence of no more than three individuals may have represented nuclear families or temporary camping sites for special task groups (such as a hunting party). Bands likely moved between certain caves depending on the season, indicated by remains of seasonal materials such as certain foods, and returned to the same locations generation after generation. Some sites may have been used for over 100 years. Cave bears may have greatly competed with Neanderthals for cave space, and there is a
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groups to corporations and political states. As such, social interactions between humans have established a wide variety of values, social norms, languages, and traditions (collectively termed institutions), each of which bolsters human society. Humans are also highly curious: the desire to understand and influence phenomena has motivated humanity's development of science, technology, philosophy, mythology, religion, and other frameworks of knowledge; humans also study themselves through such domains as anthropology, social science, history, psychology, and medicine. As of March 2024, there are estimated to be more than 8 billion humans alive.
Although some scientists equate
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–0 —MiocenePliocenePleistoceneHomininiNakalipithecusSamburupithecusOuranopithecus(Ou. turkae)(Ou. macedoniensis)ChororapithecusOreopithecusSivapithecusSahelanthropusGraecopithecusOrrorin(O. praegens)(O. tugenensis)Ardipithecus(Ar. kadabba)(Ar. ramidus)Australopithecus(Au. africanus)(
|
xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_1_12.txt
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time of deposition—yarrow, centaury, ragwort, grape hyacinth, joint pine and hollyhock. The medicinal properties of the plants led American archaeologist Ralph Solecki to claim that the man buried was some leader, healer, or shaman, and that "The association of flowers with Neanderthals adds a whole new dimension to our knowledge of his humanness, indicating that he had'soul' ". However, it is also possible the pollen was deposited by a small rodent after the man's death.
The graves of children and infants, especially, are
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and that it would have been caused instead by genetic drift. Also, the sinuses reconstructed wide are not grossly large, being comparable in size to those of modern humans. However, if sinus size is not an important factor for breathing cold air, then the actual function would be unclear, so they may not be a good indicator of evolutionary pressures to evolve such a nose. Further, a computer reconstruction of the Neanderthal nose and predicted soft tissue patterns shows some similarities to those of modern Arctic peoples, potentially meaning the noses of both populations convergently evolved for breathing cold, dry air.
Neander
|
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from Grotta di Fumane, Italy, transported over 100 km (62 mi) to the site about 47,500 years ago; three shells, dated to about 120–115,000 years ago, perforated through the umbo belonging to a rough cockle, a Glycymeris insubrica, and a Spondylus gaederopus from Cueva de los Aviones, Spain, the former two associated with red and yellow pigments, and the latter a red-to-black mix of hematite and pyrite; and a king
|
xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_0_112.txt
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almost every population around the world. There are intersex conditions in the human population, however these are rare.
|
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humans had they survived into the present. William Golding's 1955 novel The Inheritors depicts Neanderthals as much more emotional and civilised. However, Boule's image continued to influence works until the 1960s. In modern-day, Neanderthal reconstructions are often very humanlike.
Hominin timelineThis box: viewtalkedit−10 —–−9 —–−8 —–−7 —–−6 —–−5 —–−4 —–−3 —–−2 —–−1 —
|
xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_1_11.txt
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Since the early 20th century, there has been continuous human presence in Antarctica through research stations and, since 2000, in space through habitation on the International Space Station.
Humans and their domesticated animals represent 96% of all mammalian biomass on earth, whereas all wild mammals represent only 4%.
Estimates of the population at the time agriculture emerged in around 10,000 BC have ranged between 1 million and 15 million. Around 50–60 million people lived in the combined eastern and western Roman Empire in the 4th century AD. Bubonic plagues, first recorded in the 6th century
|
xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Human_4_6.txt
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been a necklace. A similar 39,000-year-old Spanish imperial eagle talon necklace was reported in 2019 at Cova Foradà in Spain, though from the contentious Châtelperronian layer. In 2017, 17 incision-decorated raven bones from the Zaskalnaya VI rock shelter, Ukraine, dated to 43–38,000 years ago were reported. Because the notches are more-or-less equidistant to each other, they are the first modified bird bones that cannot be explained by simple butchery, and for which the argument of
|
xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_0_116.txt
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Neanderthals and modern humans. This could indicate a stronger ability in modern humans than in Neanderthals to express language.
In 1971, cognitive scientist Philip Lieberman attempted to reconstruct the Neanderthal vocal tract and concluded that it was similar to that of a newborn and incapable of producing a large range of speech sounds, due to the large size of the mouth and the small size of the pharyngeal cavity (according to his reconstruction), thus no need for a descended larynx to fit the entire tongue inside the mouth. He claimed that they were anatomically unable to produce the sounds /
|
xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_0_155.txt
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ly distributed groups than contemporary modern humans, but group size is thought to have averaged 10 to 30 individuals, similar to modern hunter-gatherers. Reliable evidence of Neanderthal group composition comes from Cueva del Sidrón, Spain, and the footprints at Le Rozel, France: the former shows 7 adults, 3 adolescents, 2 juveniles and an infant; whereas the latter, based on footprint size, shows a group of 10 to 13 members where juveniles and adolescents made up 90%.
A Neanderthal child's teeth analysed in 2018 showed it was weaned after 2.5 years,
|
xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_0_74.txt
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these superarchaics were the descendants of a very early migration out of Africa around 1.9 mya.
|
xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_2_9.txt
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rotational force at the wrists and ankles, causing faster acceleration. In 1981, American palaeoanthropologist Erik Trinkaus made note of this alternate explanation, but considered it less likely.
Face[edit]
Neanderthal man reconstruction, Natural History Museum, London.
Neanderthals had less developed chins, sloping foreheads, and longer, broader, more projecting noses. The Neanderthal skull is typically more elongated, but also wider, and less globular than that of most modern humans, and features much more of an occipital bun, or "
|
xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_4_9.txt
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vitamin C and functioning of a normal immune system in adults and in children under three years of age.
COVID-19[edit]
See also: COVID-19 drug repurposing research § Vitamin C, and COVID-19 misinformation § Vitamin C
During March through July 2020, vitamin C was the subject of more US FDA warning letters than any other ingredient for claims for prevention and/or treatment of COVID-19. In April 2021, the US National Institutes of Health (NIH) COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines stated that "there are
|
xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Vitamin_C_8_7.txt
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C in either the kidney or the liver. In all of the cases where genomic analysis was done on an ascorbic acid auxotroph, the origin of the change was found to be a result of loss-of-function mutations in the gene that encodes L-gulono-γ-lactone oxidase, the enzyme that catalyzes the last step of the ascorbic acid pathway outlined above. One explanation for the repeated loss of the ability to synthesize vitamin C is that it was the result of genetic drift; assuming that the diet was rich in vitamin
|
xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Vitamin_C_0_38.txt
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of resources.
Humans are one of the most adaptable species, despite having a low or narrow tolerance for many of the earth's extreme environments. Currently the species is present in all eight biogeographical realms, although their presence in the Antarctic realm is very limited to research stations and annually there is a population decline in the winter months of this realm. Humans established their nation-states in the other seven realms, such as for example South Africa, India, Russia, Australia, Fiji, United States and Brazil (each located in a different biogeographical realm).
By using advanced tools and
|
xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Human_4_3.txt
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special task groups (such as a hunting party). Bands likely moved between certain caves depending on the season, indicated by remains of seasonal materials such as certain foods, and returned to the same locations generation after generation. Some sites may have been used for over 100 years. Cave bears may have greatly competed with Neanderthals for cave space, and there is a decline in cave bear populations starting 50,000 years ago onwards (although their extinction occurred well after Neanderthals had died out). Neanderthals also had a preference for caves whose openings faced towards the south. Although Neanderthals are generally
|
xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_5_3.txt
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attari, Italy, had evidence of a swift blow to the head—indicative of ritual murder—and a precise and deliberate incising at the base to access the brain. He compared it to the victims of headhunters in Malaysia and Borneo, putting it forward as evidence of a skull cult. However, it is now thought to have been a result of cave hyaena scavengery. Although Neanderthals are known to have practiced cannibalism, there is unsubstantial evidence to suggest ritual defleshing.
In 2019, Gibraltarian palaeoanthropologists Stewart,
|
xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_0_164.txt
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Le Moustier, France
Nonetheless, as opposed to the bone sewing-needles and stitching awls assumed to have been in use by contemporary modern humans, the only known Neanderthal tools that could have been used to fashion clothes are hide scrapers, which could have made items similar to blankets or ponchos, and there is no direct evidence they could produce fitted clothes. Indirect evidence of tailoring by Neanderthals includes the ability to manufacture string, which could indicate weaving ability, and a naturally-pointed horse metatarsal bone from Cueva de los Aviones
|
xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Neanderthal_5_78.txt
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an extra intermediate. Both processes yield approximately 60% vitamin C from the glucose starting point. Researchers are exploring means for one-step fermentation.
China produces about 70% of the global vitamin C market. The rest is split among European Union, India and North America. The global market is expected to exceed 141 thousand metric tons in 2024. Cost per metric ton (1000 kg) in US dollars was $2,220 in Shanghai, $2,850 in Hamburg and $3,490 in the US.
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xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Vitamin_C_7_18.txt
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the first recorded controlled experiments
The first attempt to give scientific basis for the cause of this disease was by a ship's surgeon in the Royal Navy, James Lind. While at sea in May 1747, Lind provided some crew members with two oranges and one lemon per day, in addition to normal rations, while others continued on cider, vinegar, sulfuric acid or seawater, along with their normal rations, in one of the world's first controlled experiments. The results showed that citrus fruits prevented the disease. Lind published his work in 1753 in his Treatise on the Scurvy
|
xlangai/BRIGHT/biology/neanderthals_vitamin_C_diet/Vitamin_C_10_3.txt
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